Cultural Approaches to Communication

Cultural Approaches to Communication There are two traditional approaches to communication: transmission and ritual. The transmission approach views communication as conveying information over a distance for the purpose of control whereas the ritual approach views it as a representation of shared beliefs (Carey, n.d.). The traditional approaches are viewed as counter posed views of communication as none of the approaches contests what the other has to offer. However their insights into the process of communication have given rise to a new cultural approach to communication where communication is defined as a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed (Carey, 1988, pp. 23-24). This approach helps in understanding the existing communication processes in a disarmingly simplistic manner which makes it a wonderful experience. The objective of this essay is to analyze the cultural approach to communication with the help of a communication process, in this case, dance. This essay attemp ts to describe the process of cultural approach to communication with the help of dance as a communication process. Dance was chosen for the case study because it is a social and culturally significant process. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance, even from different cultures, but what they lack is the ability to explain it to others in terms of a communication process. In his book Experimence and Nature, Dewey claimed that the of all things communication is the most wonderful (1939, p. 385). However, the everyday activities like conversations, giving and receiving instruction, sharing of information, entertaining others and getting entertained which are collectively termed as communication (Carey, 1988, p. 23) are routine activities. They happen so often and are so redundant that they are almost trivial and stop receiving our attention. There is nothing wonderful about these activities unless there is excessive masochism like a brilliant opera or a sensational news item. Such wonderfulness is rare which leads many communication scholars to term day-to-day communication as a common and mundane human experience. However, Carey does not subscribe to this view as he believes that Dewey must have meant something deeper when he termed communication as the most wonderful thing. According to Carey, communication appears mundane as people focus too much on trivial aspects that they forget the awesomeness in it. In his cultural approach to communication, Carey proposed to make communication appear problematic by inversing the relationship between realism and symbolic forms. Carey used the term symbolic process which creates reality to explain the wonderfulness in communication. By the term symbolic process, Carey meant a representation for community ideals in the material forms. The material forms or symbols can be artistic expressions like song, dance, plays, painting or journalism or scientific subjects such as anthropology or biology. The common belief among majority of people is reality is primary and symbolic representation is secondary. This means that there is an all encompassing reality which does not change, what changes is the peoles perception of reality which they represent through an artistic expression or scientific subject. For example, a painter who is pessimistic and sees everything which is wrong in the society is likely to produce darker paintings because it is his perception of reality. The cultural apporach however counters this belief by contesting that the symbols are primary. The symbolic process creates reality or as Kenneth Burke says reality is the signs of words. Carey argues that there is no single reality which is all encompass ing, rather reality is brought into existence by multiple symbolic processes going on in the universe at any point of time. For example, a news item (symbolic process) may lead people to act in a certain way which will create new reality. This reality is different for different people and thus reality is not a given. Dance is a non-verbal communication process which is social and culturally significant. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance which helps them in evaluating dance from various cultures. There are several genres of dance from classical ballet to popular dance forms, from ritual dance to forms of sport such as figure skating. Different forms of dance are prevalent in different parts of the world such as classical ballet in Europe and ritual dance in Asia. Each culture has its own unique element in dancing, for example, association of musical instruments such as drums with dancing in most of Africa. A common understanding of the important elements of dance across cultures is thus important to understand the communication process. There are several attempts made by researchers to define dance in their cultural context. The Websters Third International Dictionary defines dance as rythmic movemement having as its aim the creation of visual designs by a series of poses through space in time and executed by body parts with a certain temperament and purpose (Kurath, 1960, pp. 234-235). According to Hanna, the concept of series of poses stands good in traditional dance categories such as classical ballet and ritual dance, however fail in modern dance forms such as Tharp in which the dancers bodies just keep spiralling and there is no distinct series of poses (1987). which stand good in their own cultures but fail in their understanding of cross-cultural elements. Kealiinohomoku (1972, p. 387) defines dance as an affective mode of expression which requires both time and space, employs motor behaviour in redundant patterns which are closely linked to the definitve features of musicality. According to Hanna, this definition is too limited as dance can occur without expression of emotions. Moreover, redundancy is not a feature of many dance forms and they often have a unique beginning and climax. The association of musicality with dance is very limited in scope as music and dance are two separate activities and need not happen together. In fact, several dance forms such as figure gymnastics take place without music. The present definitions stand good in their limited cultural context, but fail when applied to diverse cross-cultural dance forms. These definitions of dance are limited in their understanding of important elements of dance across cultures. They either incorporate unnecessary elements (such as transcending utility in Kuraths definition) or leave out important elements (such as culturally patterned sequence in Kealiinohomokus definition. Hanna attempts to bridge this gap in cross-cultural understanding of dance by establishing four criteria which must be fulfilled for an activity to be termed as dance i) purposeful, ii) intentionally rhythmical, iii) culturally patterned sequences of iv a) non verbal body movements, b) extra ordinary motor activites, c) motion having inherent and aesthetic value (Hanna, 1987, p. 19). To analyze dance from a cultural approach to communication, Careys notion of communication, that is, reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed has to be evaluated in the context of dance. While dance is influenced by a culture, it also creates a culture (producing reality) of its own. Like any other artists, dancers vie to be unique in their art by incorporating unique steps in their movements which are not necessarily influenced by their culture. A prime example will be Michael Jackson who influenced a new fashion and dance culture of his own throughout the world with his unique steps. Jacksons dance works have lasted in the memories of viewers in the forms of records beyond the actual dance situation. This has influenced thousands of youngsters to copy Jackson which has produced reality by creating a form of dance and even fashion which previously did not exist. Once the reality has been produced, the creators look to maintain the reality in the wake of new generations who might find it problematic by creating rigid rules and regulations. This maintenance of reality is visible in popular dance forms such as classical ballet. Brinson (1991) observes that the national dance culture in elitist Europe has often rigid formality and artificiality which forces the dancers to be within the realm of existing reality. The dance schools and theatres impose this rigidity on students of dance which can be viewed as an effort to maintain reality. It has been moderately successful in some cases. The traditional Indian dance forms such as Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi are said to have retained their original form after even centuries of their origin despite many external modernizing pressures. In most cases, however, the new generation finds the existing dance forms too problematic and seek to incorporate newer changes (repairing and transforming the reality). A prime example can be Isadora Duncan who worked towards loosening the restrictions on classical ballet and formed a modern dance tradition known as Twyla Tharp. In most cases, however, the repaired reality is caused due to cultural (external) changes. In Duncans case, the rise of theatre dance and vaudeville created an appropriate condition for her to introduce changes to the classical and more rigid form of ballet. This contradicts with Careys notion that transformation in reality will happen due to symbolic process. In the case of Twyla Tharp and most other modern dance forms, the symbolic process has happened due to transformation in reality or cultural changes. This can mean two things. One of them is that Communication, as many scholars claimed, a most mundane experience after all. This means that most of the communication around us is a representation of the reality and not the other way round as Carey theorized. Only on rare activities with excessive masochism can it influence the reality. This was the case with Jackson and Duncan as both were wonderful exponents of their art that they were able to influence a whole new reality due to their lasting effect on peoples memories. A more plausible explanation can be that communication acts as representation of reality and for reality at the same time depending upon the point of view. Borrowing from Bakhtins concept of Intertextuality, an artists work results from an influence of multiple inner voices and yet is completely different from any other artist. Taking this concept into the dance forms, a dancer plays two roles in communication process. He is not only influenced by existing cultural phenomenon which determines his purpose and patterns, he also influences the actual culture through his unique rhythmical patterns which are independent of cultural influence. So a dancer is not only influenced by reality but also creates reality at the same time. The magnitude of his role depends upon the ability of the artist and external conditions prevailing. This explains the case of Jackson and Duncan satisfactorily. The purpose of this essay was to evaluate the effectiveness of Cultural approach to communication using dance as communication process. Dance can create new reality and maintain it. But the changes in reality (repair and transformation) often happen under the influence of external conditions. It was found that Careys notion of symbolic processes creating reality is one-dimensional. It assumes that symbolic processes are the origin and reality is a manifestation of it. However, it was revealed that symbolic processes play a dual role of influencer and influenced at the same time. This opens the question of origin of symbols and reality. It can form the scope of future studies on cultural approach to communication.

Sex Discrimination at Wal-Mart

Wal-Mart stores, the world’s biggest retailer, owns more than 4,000 stores, including 1,475discount stores 1750 Wal-Mart Supercenter combination discount and grocery stores and 540 Sam’s Club Warehouse stores. With close to two million employees worldwide, Wal-Mart is the biggest employment provider in the world. In this paper I am going to discuss; 1. What financial impact could the lawsuit potentially have on Wal-Mart? 2. What are the major moral complaints of the females suing Wal-Mart? Are these moral complaints are justified? Why? . What, if anything, should Wal-Mart do to correct these discrepancies? Should the company institute an â€Å"affirmative action† promotion program for female employees? If so, what should this program look like? 4. Do women deserve to win their lawsuit? Though Wal-Mart suffered lots of lawsuits which included child-labor, illegal immigrant workers, failure to pay over time charges the recent and major law suit they are facing now is the discrimination against female employees in promotions, pay, management training and job assignments.It was, therefore, a noteworthy event in June 2004 when a federal judge expanded a lawsuit filed by six California women to a class action. The case has now mushroomed to cover 1. 6 million women Wal-Mart workers, employed nationwide since 1988, making it, by far, the largest class action in U. S. history. What financial impact do you think lawsuit could potentially have on Wal-Mart? We all know, Wal-Mart is the biggest or largest retail store in the world. Naturally, their earning and employees are also more compared to other corporate.The lawsuit against the company was not the company needed when they were facing other legal issues such as the child labor and employment of illegal immigrants. The lawsuit was filed by six women who say women were treated lower than the male even if they acquired equal posts, qualification and experience. The news already reached every househo ld, street and public place thus bringing the name of the company down. This could have a huge impact on the company’s earnings and here we are not saying in terms of hundreds or thousands of dollars we mean millions and billions of dollars. Some of the impact could occur in the following forms: ?The six women who filed the case against Wal-Mart are not only asking the company pay for the unfair deed but also asking them to pay back and compensate for all 1. 6 female employees against whom Wal-Mart discriminated. This would cost the company a fortune because these 1. 6 female workers were entitled to promotions, salary increment, trainings and other such things. To compensate or reimburse that much amount for that much workers would surely have a huge and major impact on the company’s financial position. ?The other way how this lawsuit could affect the company’s financial position would be through the transaction or sales.Since major part of the shoppers constit utes women, after hearing what Wal-Mart has done and how women are treated at Wal-Mart they would certainly feel insecure and ripped off. They would turn their backs and look for a better place to shop. This would lead to a fall in sales and increase in competition. ?Other thing is the reputation and goodwill of the company. The lawsuit already has brought the name of the company down and on top of that if the company fails to win the case, then the company would suffer a huge fall of share in the market.They would even have to close most of the stores and start all over again which would be impossible looking at the current market situation and all the competition worldwide. ?And not to forget the turnover of workers or employees. Reaching this news of discrimination I personally believe that most of the women employees will quit their job, even those who did not experience the situation. So interviewing, selecting or recruiting those new employees would cost Wal-Mart another milli on. Moreover, those new employees would have no experience and would commit lots of errors.Training them would again add to the cost. What are the major moral complaints of the females suing Wal-Mart? Do you believe these moral complaints are justified? Why? The major moral complaints of females suing Wal-Mart in the case basically cover the discrimination against female employees. To point out what constitutes those complaints: ? Difference in the promotion scheme between male and female employees ? The lower payment of wages and salaries to female employees even they were at same level with male employees ? Unequal distribution of management training among the male and female employees ?Male allotted a better job assignment compared to women even they were equally qualified, ranked and experienced. Yes, I believe these complaints are justifiable because we can see from every point that women were not treated fairly and equally. It wasn’t that women lacked in anything or tha t they were unwilling to work, it was because they were woman. We can very well compete with men and in some cases may even prove better than them but it is act like this what is pulling the power of women down. The six women who sued Wal-Mart didn’t sue for nothing; they had physical proof and evidences of the discrimination laid upon them.Some of the evidences were found in the employees’ records where by Richard Drogin, a statistical expert found out that employees atWal-Mart were divided into two main groups, hourly employees who occupied the lower levels and salaried managers who occupied the higher levels. Compensation increases from one level tithe next. In 2001, salaried managers made about $50,000 a year while hourly employees made$18,000. Drogin found out that not only 65% of hourly employees were women but also 33% of salaried managers constituted women.So at both the point women earned less than man. When we also look upon the experience level, an average w oman was far more experienced than an average man because women worked or stuck there for longer than men. Women despite having other responsibilities like raising a kid or managing the home, they dedicate more where they work that is why they have less turnover rates. So this adds up to another reason why the lawsuit was appropriate or justifiable. It is strange but true; the performance rating of an average woman was much higher than of an average man.Drogin found out that be it in a cashier’s place, a manager’s place or a sales associate’s place women performed better than men. However women were paid about 5% to15% times less than men and on top of that fewer women got promoted to the next rank that too in a very long time whereas a man would get promoted within the speculated time or even less into the next post. Wal-Mart was fined $188,000 by the California Fair Employment and Housing Commission for violating California state law when it refused to reinsta te a woman after she completed her maternity leave.In addition, Wal-Mart also offers a pitifully small amount of paid sick time for working women, and requires employees to be available for shifts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, making it extremely difficult for working mothers to schedule child care or take time off to care for a sick child. So the main point here is that at any angle or point we can see women were not treated fair and left to suffer. If women do not come together and fight for their rights when they have the opportunity then women will always remain a victim.Then there is no use shouting at the store or ourselves that we deserve more or we have earned it, it would be too late then. Besides the moral complaints by the female workers at Wal-Mart there were major issues involving the employees which were not noted earlier, some of the issues were: ? Wal-Mart pays low wages and appears to aggressively seek to keep wages down. On average, Wal-Mart workers earn an estima ted $8. 00/hour with a 32 hour work week. This equals $256 a week or $13,312 a year. The Federal poverty level for a family of threes $14,630. In contrast, union grocery workers earn on average 30% more. Charges have been made that older workers are laid off to bring in younger and cheaper employees. Some 40 lawsuits accuse Wal-Mart of a failure to pay overtime. ?It pulls wages and benefits down in other grocery stores. It lowers area standards. In some cases, it forces the closure of better paying firms. Business Week estimates for every Wal-Mart supercenter that opens, two other supermarkets will close. ?It pressures suppliers to make products more cheaply, putting pressure on wages, causing jobs to be moved overseas. Last year, it imported 12 billion in goods from China, 10% of US imports from that nation. Wal-Mart doesn’t produce new technology or innovations that improve the quality of life. It takes business from existing firms by offering the same merchandise cheaper. That’s all it does. So I believe it is not only justifiable but also rightful to file the lawsuit against such treatments. On top of that the evidences and statics are on the women’s side so therefore the lawsuit is 100% justifiable. What, if anything, do you think Wal-Mart should do to correct these discrepancies? Should the company institute an â€Å"affirmative action† promotion program for female employees?If so, what should this program be like? The problem was caused by the company, Wal-Mart so definitely they have to find a solution and try to correct their mistakes. They have already started working on the problem. Some of the initiatives they have taken are: ? They had posted â€Å"anti-discrimination† posters all over ? Women were allotted more responsibilities and representation in areas they were evaluated ? Women could enter salaried management jobs without having to relocate their homes. But since such initiatives were not firmly implemented some of them were forgone with the passage of time.Some of initiatives Wal-Mart could think of or adopt are: 1) Work Discrimination I am talking about the actual work or labor work. Women at Wal-Mart seem to be working at par with men but still they are not paid at par. To compensate for the women’s losses they could reduce their work time or they could allocate women to areas where minimum energy is required. For example they could work at displaying of items, as a cashier, and such places where not much of hard labor is required. 2) Facility such as Day Care Wal-Mart is one of the biggest retail all over the world and they have lots of property they own.If they established some Day care center for their employees especially the female employees then those employees who have kids can drop their kids in those center and work care free in the store. The center could be near the store and they could also charge some amount as charge but this could not only benefit the workers but also the company for could avoid unnecessary absenteeism. An association called the Women’s Association can be formed in every retail store so that female employees can come together to discuss their issues and forward suggestions and feedback.Such programs do not have to disturb their normal work time, it could be conducted once in every month or whenever major issues arise. 4) Equal Respect At Wal-Mart’s women were mostly looked down and not given the respect they deserve. Adwoman may be somebody’s mother, wife or sister. Men at Wal-Mart fail to see that and they criticized women of their looks, their past, future and their purpose in life. So therefore women should be given respect and treated equally. Yes definitely the company should institute an â€Å"affirmative action† in order to promote program for the female employees.From my point of view, since the company is based in the United States they should associate their program with the Statue o f Liberty. That statue denotes the power of women and it signifies the right to freedom for all the U. S citizens. The title or the main theme of such program could be â€Å"Liberty for Women† . Whereby they could stress the freedom to speak, advance and employment especially for the female workers. They could relate women to some famous figure such as the Mother Teresa or simply their own mom. On this particular day they could give all the female employees a one day holiday and let them embrace themselves.The company should however grant monetary compensation for this day. This way women employee could proudly say they work at Wal-Mart and dedicate completely to their work and avoid complaining. Some of the points they could keep in mind while pursuing such program could be as follows: ? The right and responsibilities of women ?The importance of women ?The success of women till now ?The potential and ability of women ?The sacrifices women make in every aspect of life Referen ces Wal-Mart Class Action Gender Discrimination Case Holds,(2012), Myron Curry, retrieved from http://www. usiness-marketing. com/store/article-walmart. html Are Women Discriminated Against at Wal-Mart? , (2012), Dan Ackman, retrieved from http://www. forbes. com/2004/06/23/cx_da_0623topnews. html Wal-Mart, pay your fair share,(2006), Randy Joseph, retrieved from http://www. seattlepi. com/local/opinion/article/Wal-Mart-pay-your-fair-share-1194522. php Female Wal-Mart Employees File New Bias Case, (2011), Andrew Martin, retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com/2011/10/28/business/women-file-new-class-action-bias-case-against-wal-mart. html? _r=0

The Moral Makeup Of Ethics Essay - 1415 Words

In every profession, ethics plays an integral role. It is the moral makeup that dictates an individual’s behaviors, values, and principles (Banks, 2012). When confronted with a dilemma, one’s ethics will determine what decision they make. Depending whether the choice is ethical, they may be graciously rewarded, or face dire consequences. However, ethics is often never that transparent. The morally right choice may be the unfavorable one, while the unethical choice is advantageous. Despite the complexity of ethics, there is one thing that is always certain. An individual’s decision will reflect their character, and directly impact the public opinion of their organization. In law enforcement, the goal is to protect and serve the public (Ortmeier Meese, 2004). The mission statement for the LAPD states, â€Å"It is our mission to safeguard the lives and property of the people we serve, to reduce the incidence and fear of crime, and to enhance public safety while working with the diverse communities to improve the quality of life†. It is a police officer’s duty to ensure they are working to accomplish these goals, by providing the best services to the public (Ortmeier Meese, 2004). Due to law enforcement agencies being public administrations, the interests of the public are the central focus (Ortmeier Meese, 2004; Banks, 2012). Therefore, the relationship between law enforcement and the public is critical (Ortmeier Meese, 2004). The second part of the LAPDShow MoreRelatedA Lie Is Not Moral Or Ethical Value1004 Words   |  5 Pages It is never okay to lie to someone. Lying is disrespectful. I believe, the purpose to a lie is achieving a goal at the expense of another. It holds no moral or ethical value. 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E-Commerce - eBay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2810 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example?   E-COMMERCE Assignment set 1 1 a. eBay is the Worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Online Marketplace  ®, enabling trade on a local, national and international basis. With a diverse and passionate community of individuals and small businesses, eBay offers an online platform where millions of items are traded each day. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "E-Commerce eBay" essay for you Create order Mention and explain the various opportunities offered by ecommerce for businesses. b. What are the advantages and disadvantages of eCommerce? Ans: (a) opportunities offered by ecommerce for businesses 1. Tourism and Travel Sector: This sector has updated its system with e- commerce services. Consumers can make online reservations of hotels, motels, air tickets, railway tickets, etc. 2. Banking Sector: Most banks have changed their working style by making their services available online through their respective websites. 3. Health Care Sector: This sector is large and uses a major part of government expenses. So, most health care companies communicate or exchange their services with each other. 4. Stock Sector: In the stock exchange sector, e-commerce services provide demit account facilities for customers who can do an overall analysis of the status of the stock areas and do their respective transactions. 5. Financial Sector: In India, the financial sector has ad opted e-commerce services and the users make maximum use of the same. Advantages of eCommerce: Customers can use the marketplace at all times with the use of e-commerce services. Customers are fully satisfied and receive better service. No mediators: Customers can directly contact the suppliers and remove all mediators. Using the e-commerce services, one can understand consumer behavior, for example, websites, products, schemes and modes of payment which are preferred by the customer. Can save time because they can purchase anything through the merchant websites. Disadvantages of eCommerce: 1.People who have no knowledge about electronic communication like the Internet, and computers find it difficult to transact electronically. 2. Small businessmen do not want to take any extra burden because they have no knowledge ofe-commercefunctions. 3. Some types of businesses are not fit fore-commerceservices. 4. Before implementinge-commerceservices in the business, it is necessary to complete certain legal formalities like authorization and authentication. 5. High risk for Internet startup organization. 6. Security problems 7. Customer relation problems 8. Data integrity problems 9. Customer satisfaction problems Q: 2 The TCP/IP reference model is the network model used in the current Internet architecture. This model is derived from the OSI model and they are relatively same in nature. Explain the different characteristics of Gateways in the TCP/IP reference model with a neat diagram b. Write short note on Hyper Te xt Markup Language (HTML) with example Ands: (a) Characteristics of Gateways Gateways provide full protocol conversion from one proprietary LAN technology to another, i.e. Ethernet to token ring or FDDI or any other standard or protocol rather than encapsulation It uses higher layers of the OSI model, perhaps through layer 7, the application layer. IBM SNA, DEC net, Internet TCP/IP and other protocols can be converted from network-to-network Unlike bridges and routers, gateways operate slowly because of protocol conversion. Consequently, they may create bottlenecks of congestion during periods of peak usage. Default Gateway Default gateway consists of manually registering router IP addresses in the host. This method is simple; and is the most frequently used. Note however, that if two or more routers are connected to the same subnet, the network administrator must determine which of these routers the message should be sent to. To solve this problem, a message calle d ICMP redirect is available. Default gateway checks the destination host address in the received message. If it determines that the message should be sent via other router, it will send back a redirect message that includes the IP address of the selected router, to the source host. When the source host receives this message, it stores the destination host address as well as the second router address so that it can send messages addressed to this host via the second router. (b) Hypertext Markup Language. Hypertextis the method by which you move around on the web à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  by clicking on special text calledhyperlinkswhich bring you to the next page. The fact that it is hyperjust means it is not linear à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  i.e. you can go to any place on the Internet whenever you want by clicking on links à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬  there is no set order to do things in. Markupis whatHTML tagsdo to the text inside them. They mark it as a certain type of text (italicizedtext, for example). HTML is aLanguage, as it has code-words and syntax like any other language. Example: html head about authors /head title First Page /title body h1 Hello this my Home page! /body /html Q: 3 Hanson websites are built to work for your business and are built on the concept of intelligent website. An intelligent website is more than just a brochure on the web. It allows you to edit the website yourself through a Content Management System (CMS). What is the need for an intelligent website? Ans: The need of intelligent website is to create the next generation products, services and frameworks though the research application and study of information technology and artificial intelligence. Following are the steps companies follow to increase their information. Basic Web traffic analysis Customer interaction analysis Real-timepersonalization Getting tofine-grainedsegmentation Going through the streams of clicks Enrich content with external data Reaching optimal intelligence. 1. Basic Web traffic analysis: In this step it analyze the Web traffic this provides the information of records of entry the duration of viewed, exit point into a web or pages the link they follow. 2. Customer interaction analysis: This step is used to collect more information about the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interactions with the website. Registered users through this registration process, the site is able to get information related to both the demographics and preference. This type of data is used to help inform personalization engines to serve the contents according to the visitorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interests. 3. Real-timepersonalization: Personalization is the ultimate realization of the one-to-one marketing dream. Four ways of personalization includes. Greetings: This is a more general way of personalization. The customer is greeted by name and welcomed back whenever he or she visits the site. Customization: It allows a customer to tailor the service he or she receives from an e-commerce site Recommendation: t was based only on the preferences that a customer would have explicitly expressed during registration. Now, it can be done in real time and predicted automatically by the personalization engine using different types of information such as observed real-time behavior, purchase histories and expressed preferences. Customization: It allows a customer to tailor the service he or she receives from an e-commerce site. 4. Getting to fine-grained segmentation: This step also uses artificial intelligence to conduct knowledge discovery. That is, it can look for patterns in large data sets and identify common elements. 5. Going through the streams of clicks: Click-stream information is the recording of every page request from every visitor by the website owners. This information is stored into massive log files. 6. Enrich content with external data: Once a customer performs a number of purchases, the website is able to further enhance the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s profile. Demographic data from third party providers may be added to the profile to provide a richer view of the customer base. 7. Reaching optimal intelligence: A company can reach optimal intelligence once it is able to combine historical transaction records, observed behaviour via click-stream data and preferences expressed in online surveys. Q: 4 when a data is sent across the network it is encrypted and arrang ed in a way that even if there is a diversion in the flow of data should not leak the data. At the reception it is decrypted and actual data is obtained. Explain the different methods of encryption technique. Ans: Encryption is a method by which plaintext can be converted into cipher text. There are three types of cryptography or methods of encryption: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Secret key or private key or symmetric key cryptography à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Public key or asymmetric key cryptography à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Hash function 1. Secret key or symmetric key cryptography In this scheme, both the sender and the recipient possess the same key to encrypt and decrypt the data. Figure 8.1 shows how secret or private key cryptography works. Data Encryption Standard Data Encryption Standard (DES) is an example of secret key cryptography. It was developed by IBM. DES is block cipher-based scheme which encrypts a 64-bit data block using a 56-bit key. The block is transformed in such a w ay that it involves sixteen iterations. Drawbacks of secret key cryptography à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Both parties must agree upon a shared secret key. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢If there are n correspondents, you have to keep track of n different secret keys. If the same key is used by more than one correspondent, the common key holders can read each otherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mail. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Symmetric encryption schemes are also subject to authenticity problems. Since both the sender and the recipient have the same secret key, the identity of originator or recipient cannot be proved. Both can encrypt or decrypt the message. 2. Triple Encryption DES is considered unsafe for various applications primarily due to the 56-bit key size which is too small. Triple DES is considered as an improved version to overcome many of the shortcomings of DES. The triple encryption technology is based on DES and is sometimes referred as Triple DES or 3DES. The event follows an Encrypt-Decrypt-Encr ypt (EDE) sequence. Decrypt sequence is just the same encrypting operation with the keys reversed. It is based on the DES algorithm and can easily modify the existing software to use Triple DES. It has a longer key length that helps in eliminating many of the shortcut attacks used to reduce the amount of time it takes to break DES. Triple DES mode of operation takes three 64-bit keys for an overall key length of 192 bits. In Private Key Encryption, the user can just type in the complete 192-bit (24 character) key rather than entering each of the three keys individually. The procedure for encryption is exactly the same as regular DES, but it is repeated three times. The data is encrypted with the first key, decrypted with the second key and finally encrypted again with the third key 3. Public key cryptography This scheme operates on a double key, called pair key, one of which is used to encrypt the message and the other is used to decrypt it. This can be viewed as two parts ; one part of the key pair, the private key, is known only by the designated owner. The other part, the public key, is published widely but is still associated with the owner of the private key. HASH function Hash function is a formula that converts a message of a given length into a string of digits called a message digest. Q: 5 explain different kinds of electronic payments system in detail. Ans: Electronic payment system An electronic payment system is an online business process that enables fund transfer through an electronic medium such as personal computers and mobile phones. Types of Electronic Payment Systems (EPS) There are three main categories of EPS. 1. Banking and Financial Payments Large-scaleor whole payment (e.g.,bank-to-banktransaction) Small-scaleor retail payment (e.g., ATM) Home banking (e.g., bill payment) 2. Retail Payments Credit cards (VISA or Master cards) Private label credit/debit cards (e.g., JC Penny cards) Charges cards (e.g., American Express) 3. Onlinee-commercePayments This category is again divided into two types: (i)Electronictoken-basedpayment system Electronic cash (e.g., DigiCash) Electronic cheques (e.g., NetCheque) Smart cards or debit cards (e.g., Mondexe-currencycards) (ii)Creditcard-basedpayment systems Encrypted credit cards (wwwform-basedencryption) Third-partyauthorization number (e.g., First Virtual Electronic cards: Electronic cards are designed to reflect your bank, financial and retail payments. By having one, it means that you definitely do not need to visit your bank physically in order to access your account. Mostly cut out of hard plastic material to make them durable, the cards will have a magnet trip that allows the machines to be able to gain access to your bank account electronically. They will come in three major types, the debit card, the credit card and the prepaid card. All that the vender has to do is to swap your card across the payment system where a message will be sent to your bank and immediately reply with a confirmation message. All this is done in a matter of seconds Online e-commerce Payments: This kind of payment system is slowly on the rise. We can attribute this to the increase of online shopping. Having an online account with either PayPal money bookers and or any provider allows you to be able to transfer funds more quickly as there are no restrictions and limitations on what you can do with your electronic money. One can be able to access their online accounts through their phones and or computers. These accounts are so simple to use. Q: 6 we know that there are various internet services which help us to make the use of network efficiently. Being a regular user of the various services without probably, knowing the technical aspects explain those services in details with an example. Ans: internet services an organization that provides an information service over the Internet. Examples are search engines, cloud storage services and application service providers. Following services that are available on the Net: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢World Wide Web à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢E-mail à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢File Transfer Protocol à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Telnet à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Web Chat à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Online Service à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Instant Messaging World Wide Web World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents a ccessed via the Internet. E.g. www. Ikea.com Electronic Mail E-mail is any method of digitally creating, transmitting or storing human communication that is primarily textual. SMTP was first published as Internet Standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. However, e-mail soon became à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"network e-mailà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. By 1966, messages could be exchanged between different computers. The creation of ARPANET in 1969 made a very significant contribution to the development of e-mail and one report indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson started the use of the [email  protected]/* */ sign which separates the user name from their machine name E-mail system work. The model on which a modern e-mail system works is the store-and-forward model. E-mails could only send or receive text messages composed in the ASCII character set. Example hotmail, yahoo etc. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It is a network protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another through a network such as the Internet. Special FTP software is required to connect to an FTP site and download and upload files. Both commercial and free FTP software programs are available. The following information is required to connect to an FTP site: 1. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Server addressà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hostnameà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢: The network address of the computer you want to connect to; for example, FTP.MYFTPSITE.COM. 2. Username and password: These are the credentials you use to access the specific files on the computer you wish to connect to. Telnet: It is a network protocol used on the Internet or in LAN connections, it was developed in 1969, technology with which a user can get access to a command line interface on a remote machine. telnet castor Trying 129.215.112.8 Connected to castor.ucs.ed.ac.uk. Escape character is ^]. SunOS UNIX (castor) login: Web Chat: Web chat allows users to communicate with one a nother in real time through Web interfaces. A Web browser is the only requirement to be able to chat on the Web. HTML pages came with their disadvantages as well, the main one being their interactivity. Every HTML message required a form to be submitted and a page to be loaded. There were delays in receiving messages and page flicker because of frequent page reloads. As a result, the use of HTML chat sites reduced. Java applet technology was introduced in 1995, Advanced network and graphical capabilities. But Java too had its own problemsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"long initial page loading time Newer technologies have been in use since 2005, Ajax and Flash Online se s a generic term that describes any company, organization or group that provides an online service. These types of services may include Web sites, discussion forums, chat rooms, or Web mail. OSPs may also refer to a company that provides dial-up access to the Internet service example C Online service: Online services provide an infrastructure in which subscribers can communicate with one another, either by exchanging e-mail messages or by participating in online conferences (forums). In addition, the service can connect users with an almost unlimited number of third-party information providers. Subscribers can get up-to-date stock quotes, news stories hot off the wire, articles from many magazines and journals, in fact, almost any information that has been put in electronic form. Of course, accessing all this data carries a price. Instant messaging: A type of communications service that enables you to create a kind of private chat room with another individual in order to communicate in real time over the Internet